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she had known personally (Pommer, 1967; Winkel-

mann and Schagen, 2009). Another option could

have been that the anatomists from the very begin-

ning of the NS regime refused to work with the

bodies of its victims and use only traditional body

sources as previously used. Such a refusal of collab-

oration could have been successful, as the biologist

Alfred Ku

¨hn

suggested after the war for his own dis-

cipline (Peiffer, 2004; p 147/148), and Peiffer did for

neuropathology (Peiffer, 1997; p 52). However, the

anatomists did not do so, because they saw no ethi-

cal problem in their actions. They had lost the ability

to ‘‘recognize the divine spark and image in every

human being’’ (Cohen and Werner, 2009) and did

not or could not see that the medical utilization of

victims’ bodies was a postmortem humiliation that

became part of the victims’ biographies (Winkel-

mann, 2008). These scientists had stopped looking

‘‘beyond [their] science’’ and failed to ‘‘examine the

circumstances and implications of [their] work’’

(Cohen and Werner, 2009). They could not see that

the theory and practice of their science was entirely

dependent on the political system it existed in, and

that the scientists’ competence not only in their sci-

ence but also in politics and ethics was a prerequisite

for the freedom of science. As a result, they lost this

freedom.

Some postwar consequences of the NS period are

not yet fathomable. The anatomists’ teaching and

working at German and Austrian anatomical depart-

ments after the Second World War were principally

the same as those of the NS period. A handful of

very active National Socialists had been dismissed,

others, who were initially dismissed in 1945, soon

returned to their ﬁeld of work. Only few of the anato-

mists expelled in 1933 returned after the war. Thus

the anatomy of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s was mostly

in the hands of anatomists who had trained and

worked in the Third Reich, and as academic teachers

they must have impressed their younger colleagues

and students with their words and actions (Kater,

1987; p 45). Were they able to change their thinking

and their ethics? It is unclear at this point, how and

in what manner these men (and very few women)

may have shaped the research, teaching, and ethics

of postwar German anatomy. If they had a negative

inﬂuence, this has diminished over time. The discus-

sion and detailed research of the history of anatomy

in the Third Reich ﬁnally started in the later 20th

century, and German anatomy today parallels very

much international positive developments of the dis-

cipline in terms of the ethical treatment of bodies for

dissection. Since the institution of body donation

programs in the 1960s and 1970s, all bodies used

for dissection in German anatomical departments are

donated bodies, and commemorative services are

held to pay respect to the donors. Also, the new gen-

eration of German anatomists has shown a height-

ened ethical awareness in terms of their NS history

and lessons to be learned from it (e.g., Aumu

¨ller

and

Grundmann, 2002; Winkelmann and Schagen,

2009).

This ﬁrst overview of the available literature on

the anatomy in the Third Reich shows a complex

relationship between anatomists and the ruling NS

regime. It was much the same as that of physicists,

biologists, chemists, and biochemists, one of com-

promise and collaboration that ensured the continu-

ity of the individual collaborating scientist’s work

(Deichmann, 1996; p 327; Deichmann, 2001). Mark

Walker summarized: ‘‘The German scientiﬁc commu-

nity and most of its members entered a Faustian

pact with National Socialism, trading ﬁnancial and

material support, ofﬁcial recognition, and the illusion

of professional independence for conscious or uncon-

scious support of NS policies culminating in war, the

rape of Europe, and genocide’’ (Walker, 1995; p

269).

This study also points to areas that still need

further research:

 historical investigations of all German or for-

merly German anatomical institutes, speciﬁcally

concerning their use of bodies during the NS re-

gime and the political activity of the anatomists,

 identiﬁcation of all NS victims used in anatomi-

cal institutions,

 research into the NS history of other basic medi-

cal sciences to compare with the alleged special

political activity of anatomists,

 further exploration of the historical relationship

between anatomy and physical anthropology,

eugenics/racial hygiene, and genetics,

 study of the professional and personal corre-

spondence of anatomists of the NS period to

determine any awareness of responsibility and

guilt, or lack thereof, concerning their activities

during this time,

 research into the possible inﬂuence of anato-

mists of the NS period on postwar anatomical

practice and ethics,

 evaluation of the impact of anatomical practices

during the NS period on former medical stu-

dents, and

 exploration of all German archives of govern-

mental and professional Institutions and Univer-

sity Departments of Anatomy and other medical

subdisciplines that were involved in the use of

human bodies during the time period.

The research so far shows that the story of NS

anatomy is one of a medical science that lost its bal-

ance between clinical detachment and empathy, and

whose ethics and actions became perverted, justi-

ﬁed, and instrumentalized by a criminal regime.

Depending on the political situation and the ability of

psychological and political insight of the individual

anatomist, this history has the potential to repeat

itself at any time. ‘‘Humaneness is not a good that

the society or medicine of a certain time period can

just claim for itself, but one that has to be perma-

nently worked for to be maintained’’ [translation by

author] (Druml, 1999; see also Horn and Malina,

2002). Thus, all modern anatomists are constantly

called upon to evaluate their own balance of clinical

detachment and empathy in their daily work with the

bodies of humans, and at the same time evaluate

their position within the context of their societies. A

912 Hildebrandt

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