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METHODS

Material was collected and analyzed concerning

anatomical research in NS Germany, the evaluation

of science and anatomy speciﬁcally, on the ethics of

medicine and anatomists in the Third Reich and the

postwar history of anatomy in Germany. To estimate

the extent of the use of bodies of NS victims for ana-

tomical research, a sample of 262 papers published

in the Zeitschrift fu

r Anatomie und Entwicklungsge-

schichte (Anatomy and Embryology) (131 papers)

and the Zeitschrift fu

r Zellforschung (Cell and Tissue

Research) (131 papers) between 1940 and 1949 was

examined. These two journals were chosen because

they were commonly used by German anatomists for

publication. The time frame includes the war years

from 1940, the year with the ﬁrst signiﬁcant rise of

the numbers of executions, as well as the ﬁrst post-

war years, the latter to estimate the continued use

of tissues from the bodies of the executed after the

war. The use of the bodies of the executed is taken

as an indicator for the general use of bodies of all

groups of NS victims (see Part 2) by the respective

anatomical department. In addition, anatomical

atlases published in the time period were studied.

The Science of Anatomy in National

Socialist Germany

A complete review of anatomical research in Ger-

many during the NS regime has not yet been

attempted. The look at a sample of 262 papers shows

that German anatomists worked both with animal

models and human material on morphological and

functional questions of anatomy. The exact prove-

nance of tissues was frequently not listed, but sources

of human tissues were given as autopsies, surgical

specimens, and executed persons. Most of the studies

with listed sources of human tissues in this sample, a

total of 15 papers published between 1940 and 1945,

reported the use of tissue from the executed (Bauer,

1940; Ferner, 1940; Fleischer, 1940; von Hayek,

1940a,b; Voss, 1940; Bargmann, 1942, 1943;

Schreiber, 1942; Hett, 1943; Sto¨hr, 1943; Ziesche,

1943; Schneider, 1944; Zitzelsperger, 1944; Steege,

1945; Aumu

¨ller

and Grundmann, 2002).

Some of the ‘‘material’’ from the executed collected

until 1945 seems to have been used in research for sev-

eral years after the end of the Third Reich, without the

authors’ explicitly naming the source (Graf, 1949; Herr-

linger, 1949; Sto¨hr, 1949; Wallraff, 1949). The terms

‘‘died of a sudden death’’ with ‘‘material’’ removed

within 30 min after death (e.g., Wallraff, 1949) or

‘‘bodies available directly after death’’ (e.g., Herrlinger,

1949) are oblique references to the original source of

the bodies. In Herrlinger’s case, it is documented that

he collected ‘‘material’’ directly in the execution cham-

bers at Posen University, where he worked with Her-

mann Voss (Aly, 1987, 1994). Such tissues could hardly

have become newly available to German anatomists af-

ter 1945 under the government of the Allied Forces,

with the exception of the Soviet occupation zone (David,

2004; p 365). Capital punishment was abolished in the

Federal Republic of Germany in 1949.

Studies from outside Germany mention the use of

human tissues from the executed only occasionally

(Winkelmann and Schagen, 2009). One article in this

study’s sample stems from Japan, where Seki

(1941) reports among other sources of human mate-

rial the bodies of strangled persons. Theoretically,

these could have been suicides, but hanging was

also the ofﬁcial method for executions in Japan.

Another example comes from Zurich, Switzerland.

The use of material from the bodies of two executed

persons is mentioned in two publications from this

time period (von Mo¨llendorf, 1942; Faller, 1944). As

executions were extremely rare in Switzerland at

this time, it seems most likely that this research was

done on material that originated from Germany,

maybe brought with him by von Mo¨llendorf.

Among other anatomists who used ‘‘material’’

from the executed extensively was Hermann Stieve

of Berlin. Stieve’s ﬁeld of research was the inﬂuence

of external factors, including psychological stressors,

on the reproductive system. During the 1920s and

30s, after preliminary research on animals, he trans-

ferred his studies to the human system and observed

the effect of acute and chronic nervous anxiety on

the reproductive organs from executed males and

organs from female accident and suicide victims. The

bodies of executed women were extremely rare until

the increase of death verdicts and executions under

the NS regime. This development gave Stieve the

opportunity to study a larger group of female individ-

uals suffering the great acute emotional trauma of

being told their date of execution or the loss of men-

strual activity due to chronic anxiety. He received

clinical data on the women from their prison wardens

and was informed about every scheduled execution

2 to 3 days in advance. The bodies were then trans-

ported to the anatomical institute and processed

there. He published a summary of his research

results to international acclaim in 1952 (Stieve,

1952; Aly, 1987; Marx, 2003; p 153–159; Schagen,

2005; Noack, 2007; Winkelmann, 2008; Winkel-

mann and Schagen, 2009). His institute continued

using fresh bodies of the executed during the ﬁrst

years after the war under Soviet occupation (David,

2004; p 365).

Stieve’s research belongs to a group of studies that

was only possible under the special circumstances of

the NS regime, which provided bodies of NS victims in

unprecedented quantity and under speciﬁc conditions.

This research dealt, apart from the effect of great

emotional shocks, also with the physical consequen-

ces of undergoing prolonged starvation, as seen in

Johann Paul Kremer’s and Hannes Schneider’s studies

(Schneider, 1944; Ho¨ss et al., 1984)

In addition to this histological research, bodies of

NS victims were used in other works, e.g., in the cre-

ation of Eduard Pernkopf’s ‘‘Atlas of Topographical

Anatomy’’ (Williams, 1988).

Preliminary Evaluation of Anatomical

Concepts and Research

German anatomy at the turn of the 19th to the

20th century was concerned with morphology,

907Anatomy in the Third Reich: Part 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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